Defeat Autism Now™

This site provides peer-reviewed information about the underlying biology associated with numerous co-occurring medical conditions. The references below are for researchers, clinicians, family members, and those on the autism spectrum.

Evidence-based Autism Resources

Advances In Research, use the main menu to navigate links to citations describing emerging findings in autism research

BIOMARKERS

Al-Gadani Y, El-Ansary A, Attas O, Al-Ayadhi L. Metabolic biomarkers related to oxidative stress and antioxidant status in Saudi autistic children. Clin Biochem. 2009 Jul;42(10-11):1032-40.

Faber S, Zinn GM, Kern Ii JC, Skip Kingston HM. The plasma zinc/serum copper ratio as a biomarker in children with autism spectrum disorders. Biomarkers. 2009 Mar 11:1-10.

James SJ, Cutler P, Melnyk S, Jernigan S, Janak L, Gaylor DW, Neubrander JA. Metabolic biomarkers of increased oxidative stress and impaired methylation capacity in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Dec;80(6):1611-7.

Pastural E, et al. Novel plasma phospholipid biomarkers of autism: Mitochondrial dysfunction as a putative causative mechanism. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009 Oct;81(4):253-64.

Yap IK, Angley M, Veselkov KA, Holmes E, Lindon JC, Nicholson JK. Urinary Metabolic Phenotyping Differentiates Children with Autism from Their Unaffected Siblings and Age-Matched Controls. J Proteome Res. 2010 May 13.

Biomakers | Autism Research Articles

BIOMEDICAL TREATMENT

Bradstreet JJ, Smith S, Baral M, Rossignol DA. Biomarker-guided interventions of clinically relevant conditions associated with autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Altern Med Rev. 2010 Apr;15(1):15-32.

Cubała-Kucharska M. The review of most frequently occurring medical disorders related to aetiology of autism and the methods of treatment. Acta Neurobiol Exp. 2010, 70: 141–146.

Goin-Kochel RP, Mackintosh VH, Myers, BJ. Parental reports on the efficacy of treatments and therapies of their children with autism spectrum disorders. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2009.

Golnik AE, Ireland M. Complementary Alternative Medicine for Children with Autism: A Physician Survey. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009 Mar.

O’Hara NH, Szakacs GM. The recovery of a child with autism spectrum disorder through biomedical interventions. Altern Ther Health Med. 2008 Nov-Dec;14(6):42-4.

Rossignol DA. Novel and emerging treatments for autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2009 Oct-Dec;21(4):213-36.

Biomedical Treatment | Autism Research Articles

DETOXIFICATION

Adams JB, Romdalvik J, Ramanujam V.M.S., Legator MS, Mercury, Lead, and Zinc in Baby Teeth of Children with Autism vs. Controls. J Toxicol Environ Health 2007 70(12):1046-51.

Adams JB, et al. The severity of autism is associated with toxic metal body burden and red blood cell glutathione levels. J Toxicol. 2009;2009:532640.

Adams JB, Romdalvik J, Levine KE, Lin-Wen H. Mercury in first-cut baby hair of children with autism versus typically developing children. Toxicol Environ Chem. 2008, 1–14, iFirst.

Adams JB, et al. Safety and efficacy of oral DMSA therapy for children with autism spectrum disorders: Part A–medical results & part B – behavioral results. BMC Clin Pharmacol. 2009 Oct 23;9:16&17.

Aremu DA, Madejczyk MS, Ballatori N. N-acetylcysteine as a potential antidote and biomonitoring agent of methylmercury exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2008 Jan;116(1):26-31.

Detoxification | Autism Research Articles
Aschner M, Syversen T, Souza DO, Rocha JB. Metallothioneins: mercury species-specific induction and their potential role in attenuating neurotoxicity. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2006 Oct;231(9):1468-73.

Becker KG, Schultz ST. Similarities in features of autism and asthma and a possible link to acetaminophen use. Med Hypotheses. 2010 Jan;74(1):7-11.

Beversdorf DQ, Manning SE, et al. Timing of prenatal stressors and autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2005: 35(4): 471-8.

Blanusa M, et al. Chelators as antidotes of metal toxicity: therapeutic and experimental aspects. Curr Med Chem. 2005;12(23):2771.

Burbacher TM, Shen DD, Liberato N, Grant KS, Cernichiari E, Clarkson T. Comparison of blood and brain mercury levels in infant monkeys exposed to methylmercury or vaccines containing thimerosal. Environ Health Perspect. 2005 Aug;113(8):1015-21.

Cao Y, Chen A, Jones RL, Radcliffe J, Dietrich KN, Caldwell KL, Peddada S, Rogan WJ. Efficacy of succimer chelation of mercury at background exposures in toddlers: a randomized trial. J Pediatr. 2011 Mar;158(3):480-485.e1.

Corsello S, Fulgenzi A, Vietti D, Ferrero ME. The usefulness of chelation therapy for the remission of symptoms caused by previous treatment with mercury-containing pharmaceuticals: a case report. Cases J. 2009 Nov 18;2:199.

Desoto MC, Hitlan RT. Blood Levels of Mercury Are Related to Diagnosis of Autism: A Reanalysis of an Important Data Set. J Child Neurol. 2007 Nov;22(11):1308-1311.

DeSoto MC. Ockham’s Razor and autism: the case for developmental neurotoxins contributing to a disease of neurodevelopment. Neurotoxicology. 2009 May;30(3):331-7.

Dórea JG. Integrating Experimental (In Vitro and In Vivo) Neurotoxicity Studies of Low-dose Thimerosal Relevant to Vaccines. Neurochem Res. 2011 Feb 25.

Emanuele E, et al. Low-grade endotoxemia in patients with severe autism. Neurosci Lett. 2010 Mar 8;471(3):162-5.

Fonnum F, Lock EA. The contributions of excitotoxicity, glutathione depletion and DNA repair in chemically induced injury to neurones: exemplified with toxic effects on cerebellar granule cells. J Neurochem. 2004 Feb;88(3):513-31.

Forman J, et al. A cluster of pediatric metallic mercury exposure cases treated with meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Jun;108(6):575-7.

Gallagher, Goodman. Hepatitis B triple series vaccine and developmental disability in US children aged 1-9 years. Toxicol Environ Chem. 2008 Sept: 90(5)997-1008.

Goth SR, Chu RA, Gregg JP, Cherednichenko G, Pessah IN. Uncoupling of ATP-mediated calcium signaling and dysregulated interleukin-6 secretion in dendritic cells by nanomolar thimerosal. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114(7):1083-91.

Goyer RA, Cherian MG, Jones MM, Reigart JR. Role of chelating agents for prevention, intervention, and treatment of exposures to toxic metals. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Nov;103(11):1048-52.

Graziano JH, Lolacono NJ, Moulton T, Mitchell ME, Slavkovich V, Zarate C. Controlled study of meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid for the management of childhood lead intoxication. J Pediatr. 1992 Jan;120(1):133-9.

Havarinasab S, Hultman P. Organic mercury compounds and autoimmunity. Autoimmunity Rev 2005;4:270-275.

Havarinasab S, Haggqvist B, Bjorn E, Pollard KM, Hultman P. Immunosuppressive and autoimmune effects of thimerosal in mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005 Apr 15;204(2):109-21.

Hewitson L, et al. Delayed acquisition of neonatal reflexes in newborn primates receiving a thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccine: influence of gestational age and birth weight. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2010 Jan;73(19):1298-313.

Holmes AS, et al. Reduced levels of mercury in first baby haircuts of autistic children. Int J Toxicol. 2003 Jul-Aug;22(4):277-85.

Hornig M, et al. Neurotoxic effects of postnatal thimerosal are mouse-strain dependent. Mol Psychiatry. 2004 Sep;9(9):833-45.

Hunjan MK, Evered DF. Absorption of glutathione from the gastrointestinal tract. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1985 May 14;815(2):184.

Hurlbut KM, et al. Determination and metabolism of dithiol chelating agents. XVI: Pharmacokinetics of 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonate after intravenous administration to human volunteers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1994 Feb;268(2):662-8.

Ip P, Wong V, Ho M, Lee J, Wong W. Mercury exposure in children with autistic spectrum disorder: case-control study. J Child Neurol. 2004 Jun;19(6):431-4.

Kalkbrenner AE, Daniels JL, Chen JC, Poole C, Emch M, Morrissey J. Perinatal exposure to hazardous air pollutants and autism spectrum disorders at age 8. Epidemiology. 2010 Sep;21(5):631-41.

Kern JK, Jones AM. Evidence of toxicity, oxidative stress, and neuronal insult in autism. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2006 Nov-Dec;9(6):485-99.

Kern JK, et al. Sulfhydryl-reactive metals in autism. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2007 Apr 15;70(8):715-21.

Kern JK, Geier DA, Adams JB, Geier MR. A biomarker of mercury body-burden correlated with diagnostic domain specific clinical symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. Biometals. 2010 Jun 9.

Lafleur DL, et al. N-acetylcysteine augmentation in serotonin reuptake inhibitor refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006 Jan;184(2):254-6.

Lauterburg BH, Mitchell JR. Therapeutic doses of acetaminophen stimulate the turnover of cysteine and glutathione in man. J Hepatol. 1987 Apr;4(2):206-11.

Lonsdale D, Shamberfger RJ, Audhya T. Treatment of autism spectrum children with thiamine tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide: a pilot study. Neuroendocrinol Lett. 2002 Aug;23(4):303-8.Makani S, Gollapudi S, Yel L, Chiplunkar S, Gupta S. Biochemical and molecular basis of thimerosal-induced apoptosis in T cells: a major role of mitochondrial pathway. Genes Immun. 2002 Aug;3(5):270-8.

Mayer M, Noble M. N-acetyl-L-cysteine is a pluripotent protector against cell death and enhancer of trophic factor-mediated cell survival in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Aug 2;91(16):7496-500.

Miller AL. Dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA), a non-toxic, water-soluble treatment for heavy metal toxicity. Altern Med Rev. 1998 Jun;3(3):199-207.

Minami T, Miyata E, Sakamoto Y, Yamazaki H, Ichida S. Induction of metallothionein in mouse cerebellum and cerebrum with low-dose thimerosal injection. Cell Biol Toxicol. 2009 Apr 9.

Mutter J, Naumann J, et al. Mercury and autism: accelerating evidence? Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2005: 26(5): 439-46.

N-acetylcysteine [No authors listed]. Altern Med Rev. 2000 Oct;5(5):467-71.

Olczak M, et al. Neonatal administration of a vaccine preservative, thimerosal, produces lasting impairment of nociception and apparent activation of opioid system in rats. Brain Res. 2009 Dec 8;1301:143-51.

Pasca SP, Nemes B, Vlase L, Gagyi CE, Dronca E, Miu AC, Dronca M. High levels of homocysteine and low serum paraoxonase 1 arylesterase activity in children with autism. Life Sci. 2006 Apr 4;78(19):2244-8.

Pastore A et al. Analysis of glutathione: implication in redox and detoxification. Clin Chim Acta. 2003 Jul 1;333(1):19-39.

Rose S, Melnyk S, et al. The frequency of polymorphisms affecting lead and mercury toxicity among children with autism. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008: 4(2): 85-94.

Rush T, Hjelmhaug J, Lobner D. Effects of chelators on mercury, iron, and lead neurotoxicity in cortical culture. Neurotoxicology. 2009 Jan;30(1):47-51.

Schultz, ST. Can autism be triggered by acetaminophen activation of the endocannabinoid system? Acta Neurobiol Exp 2010, 70: 227–231.

Shannon M, Graef JW. Lead intoxication in children with pervasive developmental disorders. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1996;34(2):177-81.

Stamova B, et al. Correlations Between Gene Expression and Mercury Levels in Blood of Boys With and Without Autism. Neurotox Res. 2009 Nov 24.

Stangle DE, et al. Succimer chelation improves learning, attention and arousal regulation in lead-exposed rats but produces lasting cognitive impairment in the absence of lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 30 October 2006.

Testa B, et al. Management of chronic otitis media with effusion: the role of glutathione. Laryngoscope. 2001 Aug;111(8):1486-9.

Tian Y, et al. Correlations of Gene Expression with Blood Lead Levels in Children with Autism Compared to Typically Developing Controls. Neurotox Res. 2009 Nov 17.

Waly M, et al. Activation of methionine synthase by insulin-like growth factor-1 and dopamine: a target for neurodevelopmental toxins and thimerosal. Mol Psychiatry. 2004 Apr;9(4):358-7

Waring RH, Klovrza LV. Sulphur metabolism in autism. J Nutr Env Med. 2000;10:25-32.

Waring RH., et al. Biochemical parameters in autistic children. Dev Brain Dysfunction. 1997;10:40-43.

Westphal GA, et al. Homozygous gene deletions of the glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 are associated with thimerosal sensitization. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2000 73(6):384-8.

Woods JS, et al. Studies on porphyrin metabolism in the kidney. Effects of trace metals and glutathione on renal uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase. Mol Pharmacol 1984. 26(2): 336-41.

Woods JS, et al. Quantitative measurement of porphyrins in biological tissues and evaluation of tissue porphyrins during toxicant exposures. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1993. 21(3): 291-7.

Woods JS, et al. Urinary Porphyrin Excretion in Neurotypical and Autistic Children. Environ Health Perspect. 2010 Jun 24.

Yousef S, Adem A, Zoubeidi T, Kosanovic M, Mabrouk AA, Eapen V. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Environmental Toxic Metal Exposure in the United Arab Emirates. J Trop Pediatr. 2011 Feb 6.

Zoroglu SS, et al. Pathophysiological role of nitric oxide and adrenomedullin in autism. Cell Biochem Funct. 2003 Mar;21(1):55-60.

ENVIRONMENT

Bello SC. Autism and environmental influences: review and commentary. Rev Environ Health 2007: 22(2): 139-56.

Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics. 2010 Jun;125(6):e1270-7.

Curtis JT, Hood AN, Chen Y, Cobb GP, Wallace DR. Chronic metals ingestion by prairie voles produces sex-specific deficits in social behavior: an animal model of autism. Behav Brain Res. 2010 Nov 12;213(1):42-9.

DeSoto MC, Hitlan RT. Sorting out the spinning of autism: heavy metals and the question of incidence. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2010, 70: 165.

Deth R, et al. How environmental and genetic factors combine to cause autism: A redox/methylation hypothesis. Neurotoxicology 2008: 29(1): 190-201.

Environment | Autism Research Articles
Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet. 2006 Dec 16;368(9553):2167-78.

Hallmayer J, et al. Genetic Heritability and Shared Environmental Factors Among Twin Pairs With Autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011 Jul 4.

Hewitson L, Lopresti B, Stott C, Mason NS, Tomko J. Influence of pediatric vaccines on amygdala growth and opioid ligand binding in rhesus macaque infants: A pilot study. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2010, 70: 147–164.

Herbert MR, Russo JP, Yang S et al. Autism and environmental genomics. Neurotoxicology 2006; 27(5):671-84.

Herbert MR. Contributions of the environment and environmentally vulnerable physiology to autism spectrum disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 2010 Apr;23(2):103-10

Herbstman JB, et al. Prenatal exposure to PBDEs and neurodevelopment. Environ Health Perspect. 2010 May;118(5):712-9.

Herr CE, et al. Air pollution exposure during critical time periods in gestation and alterations in cord blood lymphocyte distribution: a cohort of livebirths. Environ Health. 2010 Aug 2;9:46.

Herr CE, et al. Exposure to air pollution in critical prenatal time windows and IgE levels in newborns. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2011 Feb;22(1 Pt 1):75-84.

Kalkbrenner AE, Daniels JL, Chen JC, Poole C, Emch M, Morrissey J. Perinatal Exposure to Hazardous Air Pollutants and Autism Spectrum Disorders at Age 8. Epidemiology. 2010 Jun 17.

Kempuraj D, Asadi S, Zhang B, Manola A, Hogan J, Peterson E, Theoharides TC. Mercury induces inflammatory mediator release from human mast cells. J Neuroinflammation. 2010 Mar 11;7:20.

Kinney DK, Barch DH, Chayka B, Napoleon S, Munir KM. Environmental risk factors for autism: do they help cause de novo genetic mutations that contribute to the disorder? Med Hypotheses. 2010 Jan;74(1):102-6.

Kinney DK, Miller AM, et al. Autism prevalence following prenatal exposure to hurricanes and tropical storms in Louisiana. J Autism Dev Disord 2008: 38(3): 481-8.

Kubota T. Epigenetics in congenital diseases and pervasive developmental disorders. Environ Health Prev Med. 2008 Jan;13(1):3-7.

Landrigan PJ. What causes autism? Exploring the environmental contribution. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2010 Apr;22(2):219-25.

Lanphear BP, et al. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2005 Jul;113(7):894-9.

Magalhães ES, et al. Immune allergic response in Asperger syndrome. J Neuroimmunol. 2009 Nov 30;216(1-2):108-12.

Majewska MD, Urbanowicz E, Rok-Bujko P, Namysowska I, Mierzejewski P. Age-dependent lower or higher levels of hair mercury in autistic children than in healthy controls. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2010, 70: 196–208.

McDonald ME, Paul JF. Timing of increased autistic disorder cumulative incidence. Environ Sci Technol. 2010 Mar 15;44(6):2112-8

Nataf R, Skorupka C, Amet L, Lam A, Springbett A, Lathe R. Porphyrinuria in childhood autistic disorder: implications for environmental toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2006 Jul 15;214(2):99-108.

Palmer RF, Blanchard S, Stein Z, Mandell D, Miller C. Environmental mercury release, special education rates, and autism disorder: an ecological study of Texas. Health Place. 2006 Jun;12(2):203-9.

Palmer RF, Blanchard S, Wood R. Proximity to point sources of environmental mercury release as a predictor of autism prevalence. Health Place. 2008 Feb 12.

Rea WJ, Didriksen N, Simon TR, Pan Y, Fenyves EJ, Griffiths B. Effects of toxic exposure to molds and mycotoxins in building-related illnesses. Arch Environ Health. 2003 Jul;58(7):399-405.

Shaw W. Increased urinary excretion of a 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3-hydroxypropionic acid (HPHPA), an abnormal phenylalanine metabolite of Clostridia spp. in the gastrointestinal tract, in urine samples from patients with autism and schizophrenia. Nutr Neurosci. 2010 Jun;13(3):135-43.

Windham G, Zhang L, Gunier R, Croen L, Grether J. Autism Spectrum Disorders in Relation to Distribution of Hazardous Air Pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Area. Environ Health Perspect. 2006 Sep;114(9):1438-44.

Woods JS. Altered porphyrin metabolism as a biomarker of mercury exposure and toxicity. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1996. 74(2).

Yorbik O, Kurt I, Haşimi A, Oztürk O. Chromium, cadmium, and lead levels in urine of children with autism and typically developing controls. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2010 Jun;135(1-3):10-5.

GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Adams JB, Johansen LJ, Powell LD, Quig D, Rubin RA. Gastrointestinal flora and gastrointestinal status in children with autism–comparisons to typical children and correlation with autism severity. BMC Gastroenterol. 2011 Mar 16;11:22.

Afzal N, et al. Constipation with acquired megarectum in children with autism. Pediatrics. 2003 Oct;112(4):939-42.

Arvilommi H, Isolauri E.Kalliomäki M, Poussa T, Salminen S. Probiotics and prevention of atopic disease: 4-year follow-up of a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003 361(9372):1869-71.

Ashwood P et al. Intestinal lymphocyte populations in children with regressive autism: evidence for extensive mucosal immunopathology. J Clin Immunol. 2003 Nov;23(6):504-17.

Ashwood P, Wakefield AJ. Immune activation of peripheral blood and mucosal CD3+ lymphocyte cytokine profiles in children with autism and gastrointestinal symptoms. J Neuroimmunol. 2006 Apr;173(1-2):126-34.

Gastrointestinal | Autism Research Articles
Balzola F, Barbon V, Repici A, Rizzetto M. Panenteric IBD-like disease in a patient with regressive autism shown for the first time by the wireless capsule enteroscopy: another piece in the jigsaw of this gut-brain syndrome? Am J Gastro. 2005; 979-981.

Balzola F, et al. Autistic enterocolitis: confirmation of a new inflammatory bowel disease in an Italian cohort of patients. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:Suppl.2;A-303.

Balzola F, et al. Beneficial behavioural effects of IBD therapy and gluten/casein-free diet in an Italian cohort of patients with autistic enterocolitis followed over one year. Gastroenterology, April 2006 Vol 130 Number 4 suppl. 2 S1364 A-21.

Bercik P, et al. The intestinal microbiota affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice. Gastroenterology. 2011 Aug;141(2):599-609.e3.

Billoo AG, Memon MA, Khaskheli SA, et al. Role of probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii in management and prevention of diarrhea. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:4557-4560.

Buie T, et al. Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASDs: a consensus report. Pediatrics. 2010 Jan;125 Suppl 1:S1-18.

Buie T, Fuchs GJ 3rd, Furuta GT, Kooros K, Levy J, Lewis JD, Wershil BK, Winter H. Recommendations for evaluation and treatment of common gastrointestinal problems in children with ASDs. Pediatrics. 2010 Jan;125 Suppl 1:S19-29.

Buts JP, De Keyser N. Effects of Saccharomyces boulardii on intestinal mucosa. Dig Dis Sci. 2006 Aug;51(8):1485-92.

Cade R, et al. Autism and schizophrenia: intestinal disorders. Nutritional Neuroscience 3: 57-72, 2000.

Cade JR, et al. Autism and schizophrenia linked to malfunctioning enzyme for milk protein digestion. Autism, Mar 1999.

Chen B, Girgis S, El-Matary W. Childhood autism and eosinophilic colitis. Digestion. 2010;81(2):127-9.

Critchfield JW, van Hemert S, Ash M, Mulder L, Ashwood P. The potential role of probiotics in the management of childhood autism spectrum disorders. Gastroenterol Res Pract. 2011;2011:161358.

DeFelice ML, et al. Intestinal cytokines in children with pervasive developmental disorders. Am J Gastroenterol 98(8): 1777-82: 2003.
de Magistris L, et al. Alterations of the Intestinal Barrier in Patients With Autism Spectrum Disorders and in Their First-degree Relatives. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010 Jul 28.

del Giudice MM, Brunese FP. Probiotics, prebiotics, and allergy in children: what’s new in the last year? J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008 Sep;42 Suppl 3 Pt 2:S205-8.

D’Eufemia P, et al. Abnormal intestinal permeability in children with autism. Acta Paediatr. 1996 Sep;85(9):1076-9.

Fedorak RN, Madsen KL. Probiotics and the management of inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2004 May;10(3):286.

Finegold SM, Dowd SE, Gontcharova V, Liu C, Henley KE, Wolcott RD, Youn E, Summanen PH, Granpeesheh D, Dixon D, Liu M, Molitoris DR, Green JA 3rd. Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe. 2010 Jul 8.

Finegold SM. State of the art; microbiology in health and disease. Intestinal bacterial flora in autism. Anaerobe. 2011 Dec;17(6):367.

Furlano RI, et al. Colonic CD8 and gamma delta T-cell infiltration with epithelial damage in children with autism. J Pediatr. 2001 Mar;138(3):366-72.

Galiatsatos P, et al. Autistic enterocolitis: fact or fiction? Can J Gastroenterol 2009;23(2):95-98.

Genuis SJ, Bouchard TP. Celiac Disease Presenting as Autism. J Child Neurol. 2009 Jun 29.

Gonzalez L, Lopez K, Navarro D, Negron L, Flores L, Rodriguez R, Martinez M, Sabra A. Endoscopic and Histological Characteristics of the digestive mucosa in autistic children with gastrointestinal symptoms. Arch Venez Pueric Pediatr 69;1:19-25

Hassall E. Decisions in diagnosing and managing chronic gastroesophageal reflux disease in children. J Pediatr. 2005 Mar;146(3 Suppl):S3-12.

Heijtz RD, Wang S, Anuar F, Qian Y, Björkholm B, Samuelsson A, Hibberd ML, Forssberg H, Pettersson S. Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Feb 15;108(7):3047-52.

Horvath K et al. Gastrointestinal abnormalities in children with autistic disorder. J Pediatr. 1999 Nov;135(5):559-63.

Horvath K, Perman JA. Autism and gastrointestinal symptoms. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2002 Jun;4(3):251-8.

Horvath K, Perman JA. Autistic disorder and gastrointestinal disease. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2002 Oct;14(5):583-7.

Iacono G et al. Intolerance of cow’s milk and chronic constipation in children. N Engl J Med. 1998 Oct 15;339(16):1100-4.

Işeri SO, Sener G, Sağlam B, Gedik N, Ercan F, Yeğen BC. Oxytocin ameliorates oxidative colonic inflammation by a neutrophil-dependent mechanism. Peptides. 2005 Mar;26(3):483-91.

Kawashima H et al. Detection and sequencing of measles virus from peripheral mononuclear cells from patients with inflammatory bowel disease and autism. Dig Dis Sci. 2000 Apr;45(4):723-9.

Kazek B, et al. Platelet and intestinal 5-HT2A receptor mRNA in autistic spectrum disorders – results of a pilot study. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2010, 70: 232–238.

Koch TR, et al. Induction of enlarged intestinal lymphoid aggregates during acute glutathione depletion in a murine model. Dig Dis Sci 2000. 45(11): 2115-21.

Kuddo T, Nelson KB. How common are gastrointestinal disorders in children with autism. Curr Opin Pediatr 2003: 15(3); 339-343.

Kushak RI, Lauwers GY, Winter HS, Buie TM. Intestinal disaccharidase activity in patients with autism: Effect of age, gender, and intestinal inflammation. Autism. 2011 Mar 17.

Levy S, et al. Children with autistic spectrum disorders. I: Comparison of placebo and single dose of human synthetic secretin. Arch. Dis. Child. 2003;88;731-736.

Macdonald A. Omega-3 fatty acids as adjunctive therapy in Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterol Nurs. 2006 Jul-Aug;29(4):295-301.

McGinnis WR. Mercury and autistic gut disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Jul;109(7):A303-4.

Melmed RD, Schneider CK, Fabes RA. Metabolic markers and gastrointestinal symptoms in children with autism and related disorders. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000:31(suppl 2)S31-32.

Nikolov, RN, et al, Gastrointestinal symptoms in a sample of children with pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009 Mar;39(3):405-13.

Parracho HM, Bingham MO, Gibson GR, McCartney AL. Differences between the gut microflora of children with autistic spectrum disorders and that of healthy children. J Med Microbiol. 2005 Oct;54(Pt 10):987-91.

Quigley EM, Hurley D. Autism and the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000 Sep;95(9):2154-6.

Reichelt KL, Knivsberg AM. Can the pathophysiology of autism be explained by the nature of the discovered urine peptides? Nutr Neurosci. 2003 Feb;6(1):19-28.

Reichelt KL, et al. Probable Etiology and Possible Treatment of Childhood Autism. Brain Dysfuntion 1991; 4: 308-319.

Reichelt KL, Knivsberg AM. The possibility and probability of a gut-to-brain connection in autism. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2009 Oct-Dec;21(4):205-11.

Rimland, B. Secretin treatment for autism. N Engl J Med 2000. 342(16): 1216-7; author reply 1218.

Romano C, et al. Usefulness of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in addition to mesalazine in maintaining remission in pediatric Crohn’s disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. World J Gastroenterol. 2005 Dec 7;11(45):7118-21.

Sandler RH, et al. Short-term benefit from oral vancomycin treatment of regressive-onset autism. J Child Neurol. 2000 Jul;15(7):429.

Schneider CK, Melmed RD, Barstow LE, Enriquez FJ, Ranger-Moore J, Ostrem JA. Oral Human Immunoglobulin for Children with Autism and Gastrointestinal Dysfunction: A Prospective, Open-Label Study. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006 Jul 15.

Schnohr CW. The gastrointestinal system’s association with autism. Ugeskr Laeger. 2011 Feb 21;173(8):581-3.

Sido B, Hack V, Hochlehnert A, Lipps H, Herfarth C, Droge W. Impairment of intestinal glutathione synthesis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gut. 1998 Apr;42(4):485-92.

Sienkiewicz-Szapka E, et al. Transport of bovine milk derived opioid peptides across a Caco-2 monolayer, Int Dairy J. 2008.

Song Y, Liu C, Finegold SM. Real-time PCR quantitation of clostridia in feces of autistic children. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004 Nov;70(11):6459-65.

Sturniolo, G.C., et al. Zinc supplementation tightens “leaky gut” in Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis, 2001. 7(2): p. 94-8.

Taylor B, Miller E, Lingam R, Andrews N, Simmons A, Stowe J. Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and bowel problems or develop-mental regression in children with autism: population study. BMJ. 2002 Feb 16;324(7334):393-6.

Torrente F, Anthony A. Focal-enhanced gastritis in regressive autism with features distinct from Crohn’s disease and helicobacter Pylori gastritis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004 Apr;99(4):598-605.

Torrente F et al. Small intestinal enteropathy with epithelial IgG and complement deposition in children with regressive autism. Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7(4):375-82, 334.

Valicenti-McDermott M, et al. Frequency of gastrointestinal symptoms in children with autistic spectrum disorders and association with family history of autoimmune disease. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2006 Apr;27(2 Suppl):S128-36.

Valicenti-McDermott MD, McVicar K, Cohen HJ, Wershil BK, Shinnar S. Gastrointestinal symptoms in children with an autism spectrum disorder and language regression. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Dec;39(6):392-8.

Welch MG, Welch-Horan TB, Anwar M, Anwar N, Ludwig RJ, Ruggiero DA. Brain effects of chronic IBD in areas abnormal in autism and treatment by single neuropeptides secretin and oxytocin. J Mol Neurosci 2005; 25(3):259-74.

White JF. Intestinal pathophysiology in autism. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2003 Jun;228(6):639-49.

Whiteley P, Shattock P. Biochemical aspects in autism spectrum disorders: updating the opioid-excess theory and presenting new opportunities for biomedical intervention. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2002 Apr;6(2):175-83.

Williams BL, et. Application of novel PCR-based methods for detection, quantitation, and phylogenetic characterization of Sutterella species in intestinal biopsy samples from children with autism and gastrointestinal disturbances. MBio. 2012 Jan 10;3(1).

Williams BL, et al. Impaired carbohydrate digestion and transport and mucosal dysbiosis in the intestines of children with autism and gastroin-testinal disturbances. PLoS One. 2011;6(9):e24585.

GENETICS

Blasi F, Bacchelli E, et al. SLC25A12 and CMYA3 gene variants are not associated with autism in the IMGSAC multiplex family sample. Eur J Hum Genet 14(1): 123-6, 2006.

Boris M, Goldblatt A, Galanko J, James J. Association of MTHFR gene variants with autism. J Am Phys Surg. 2004;9(4)106-8.

Brimacombe M, Xue Ming, Parikh A. Familial risk factors in autism. J Child Neurol. 2007 May;22(5):593-7.

Campbell DB, et al. A genetic variant that disrupts MET transcription is associated with autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Oct.

Campbell DB, et al. Distinct Genetic Risk Based on Association of MET in Families With Co-occurring Autism and Gastrointestinal Condi-tions. Pediatrics. Doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-0819.

Genetics | Autism Research Articles
Campbell DB, et al. Association of MET with social and communication phenotypes in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2010 Mar 5;153B(2):438-46.

Comi AM, Zimmerman AW, Frye VH, Law PA, Peeden JN. Familial clustering of autoimmune disorders and evaluation of medical risk factors in autism. J Child Neurol. 1999 Jun;14(6):388-94.

Gregg JP et al. Gene expression changes in children with autism. Genomics. 2008 Jan;91(1):22-29.

Gregory SG, et al. Genomic and epigenetic evidence for oxytocin receptor deficiency in autism. BMC Med. 2009 Oct 22;7:62.

Heuer L, Braunschweig D, Ashwood P, Van de Water J, Campbell DB. Association of a MET genetic variant with autism-associated maternal autoantibodies to fetal brain proteins and cytokine expression. Translational Psychiatry, 2011; 1 (10): e48.

James SJ, et al. A functional polymorphism in the reduced folate carrier gene and DNA hypomethylation in mothers of children with autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2010 May 12.

Junaid MA, Kowal D, et al. Proteomic studies identified a single nucleotide polymorphism in glyoxalase I as autism susceptibility factor. Am J Med Genet A 2004: 131(1): 11-7.

Korvatska E, et al. Genetic and immunologic considerations in autism. Neurobiol Dis. 2002 Mar;9(2):107-25.

Molloy CA, et al. Familial autoimmune thyroid disease as a risk factor for regression in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: a CPEA Study. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006 Apr;36(3):317-24.

Pasca SP, Dronca E, Kaucsar T, et al. One Carbon Metabolism Disturbances and the C667T MTHFR Gene Polymorphism in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Cell Molec Med. Aug 2008.

Persico AM, et al. Adenosine deaminase alleles and autistic disorder: case-control and family-based association studies. Am J Med Genet 2000 Dec 4;96(6):784-90.

Pinto D, et al. Functional impact of global rare copy number variation in autism spectrum disorders. Nature. 2010 Jun 9.

Santos PA, Longo D, Brandalize AP, Schüler-Faccini L. MTHFR C677T is not a risk factor for autism spectrum disorders in South Brazil. Psychiatr Genet. 2010 Apr 30.

Szatmari P. Heterogeneity and the genetics of autism. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 1999 Mar;24(2):159-65.

Torres AR, et al. The association and linkage of the HLA-A2 class I allele with autism. Hum Immunol. 2006 Apr-May;67(4-5):346-1.

Ueland PM, Hustad S, Schneede J, Refsum H, Vollset SE. Biological and clinical implications of the MTHFR C677T polymorphism. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2001 Apr;22(4):195-201.

Williams TA, Mars AE, et al. Risk of autistic disorder in affected offspring of mothers with a glutathione S-transferase P1 haplotype. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007: 161(4): 356-61.

IMMUNE SYSTEM

Angelidou A, et al. Brief Report: “Allergic Symptoms” in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. More than Meets the Eye? J Autism Dev Disord. 2011 Jan 6.

Ashwood P, Krakowiak P, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hansen R, Pessah IN, Van de Water J. Associations of impaired behaviors with elevated plasma chemokines in autism spectrum disorders. J Neuroimmunol. 2011 Mar;232(1-2):196-9.

Ashwood P, et al. Altered T cell responses in children with autism. Brain Behav Immun. 2010 Sep 15.

Ashwood P, et al. Elevated plasma cytokines in autism spectrum disorders provide evidence of immune dysfunction and are associated with impaired behavioral outcome. Brain Behav Immun. 2011 Jan;25(1):40-5.

Ashwood P, Kwong C, Hansen R, Hertz-Picciotto I, Croen L, Krakowiak P, Walker W, Pessah IN, Van de Water J. Brief report: plasma leptin levels are elevated in autism: association with early onset phenotype? J Autism Dev Disord. 2008 Jan;38(1):169-75.

Immune System | Autism Research Articles
Ashwood P, et al. Spontaneous mucosal lymphocyte cytokine profiles in children with autism and gastrointestinal symptoms: mucosal immune activation and reduced counter regulatory interleukin-10. J Clin Immunol. 2004 Nov;24(6):664-73.

Ashwood P, Van de Water J. Is autism an autoimmune disease? Autoimmun Rev. 2004 Nov;3(7-8):557-62.

Ashwood P, et al. The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research. J Leuk Biol. 2006 Jul:80;1-15.

Atladóttir HO, et al. Association of Family History of Autoimmune Diseases and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Pediatrics. 2009 Jul 5.

Boris M, et al. Improvement in children treated with intravenous gamma globulin. J Nutr Environmental Med. Dec 2006; 15(4):1-8.

Boris M, et al. Effect of Pioglitazone treatment on behavioral symptoms in autistic children. J Neuroinflammation. 2007 Jan 5;4:3.

Bradstreet JJ, Smith S, Granpeesheh D, El-Dahr JM, Rossignol D. Spironolactone Might be a Desirable Immunologic and Hormonal Intervention in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Med Hypotheses. 2006 Dec 4.

Braunschweig D, et al. Autism: Maternally derived antibodies specific for fetal brain proteins. Neurotoxicology. 2007 Nov 6.

Bray TM, Taylor CG. Enhancement of tissue glutathione for antioxidant and immune functions in malnutrition. Biochem Pharmacol. 1994 Jun 15;47(12):2113-23.

Brown AC, Mehl-Madrona L. Autoimmune and gastrointestinal dysfunctions: does a subset of children with autism reveal a broader connec-tion? Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011 Aug;5(4):465-77.

Cabanlit M, Wills S, Goines P, Ashwood P, Van de Water J. Brain-specific autoantibodies in the plasma of subjects with autistic spectrum disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007 Jun;1107:92-103.

Careaga M, Van de Water J, Ashwood P. Immune dysfunction in autism: a pathway to treatment. Neurotherapeutics. 2010 Jul;7(3):283-92.

Cave SF. The history of vaccinations in the light of the autism epidemic. Altern Ther Health Med. 2008 Nov-Dec;14(6):54-7.

Chinetti G, Fruchart JC, Staels B. Peroxisome proliferators-activated receptors (PPAR): nuclear receptors at the crossroads between lipid metabolism and inflammation. Inflamm Res 2000;49:497-505.

Cohly HH, Panja A. Immunological findings in autism. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2005;71:317-41.

Chmelik, E., N. Awadallah, et al. (2004). Varied presentation of PANDAS: a case series. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 43(4): 379-82.

Connolly AM, Chez MG, Pestronk A, Arnold ST, Mehta S, Deuel RK. Serum autoantibodies to brain in Landau-Kleffner variant, autism, and other neurologic disorders. J Pediatr. 1999 May;134(5):607-13.

Croen LA, Grether JK, Yoshida CK, Odouli R, Van de Water J. Maternal autoimmune diseases, asthma and allergies, and childhood autism spectrum disorders: a case-control study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005 Feb;159(2):151-7.

Croonenberghs J, Wauters A, Devreese K, Verkerk R, Scharpe S, Bosmans E, Egyed B, Deboutte D, Maes M. Increased serum albumin, gamma globulin, immunoglobulin IgG, and IgG2 and IgG4 in autism. Psychol Med. 2002 Nov;32(8):1457-63.

Croonenberghs J, et al. Activation of the inflammatory response system in autism. Neuropsychobiology 2002, 45(1):1-6.

Cross ML. Immune-signalling by orally-delivered probiotic bacteria: effects on common mucosal immunoresponses and protection at distal mucosal sites. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2004 May-Aug;17(2):127-34.

Dalton P, et al. Maternal neuronal antibodies associated with autism and a language disorder. Ann Neurol. 2003 Apr;53(4):533-7.

DelGiudice-Asch G, Simon L, Schmeidler J, Cunningham-Rundles C, Hollander E. Brief report: A pilot open clinical trial of intravenous immunoglobulin in childhood autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 1999:29(2):157-60.

Denney DR, et al. Lymphocyte subsets and interleukin-2 receptors in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1996 Feb;26(1):87-97.

Dietert RR, Dietert JM. Potential for early-life immune insult including developmental immunotoxicity in autism and autism spectrum disorders: focus on critical windows of immune vulnerability. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2008 Oct;11(8):660-80.

Drakes M, Blanchard T, Czinn S. Bacterial probiotic modulation of dendritic cells. Infect Immun. 2004 Jun;72(6):3299-309.

Droge W, Breitkreutz R. Glutathione and immune function. Proc Nutr Soc. 2000 Nov;59(4):595-600.

Enstrom A, et al. Increased IgG4 levels in children with autism disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2009 Mar;23(3):389-95.

Enstrom AM, et al. Altered gene expression and function of peripheral blood natural killer cells in children with autism. Brain Behav Immun. 2009 Jan;23(1):124-33.

Elchaar GM, Maisch NM, Augusto LM, Wehring HJ. Efficacy and safety of naltrexone use in pediatric patients with autistic disorder. Ann Pharmacother. 2006 Jun;40(6):1086-95.

Engstrom HA, Ohlson S, Stubbs EG, Maciulis A, Caldwell V, Odell JD, Torres A.R. Decreased Expression of CD95 (FAS/APO-1) on CD4+ T-lymphocytes from Participants with Autism. J Dev Phys Disabil. 2003 Jun 15;2:155-163(9).

Ferrante P, Saresella M, Guerini FR, Marzorati M, Musetti MC, Cazzullo AG. Significant association of HLA A2-DR11 with CD4 naive decrease in autistic children. Biomed Pharmacother. 2003 Oct;57(8):372-4.

Feinstein DL. Therapeutic potential of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists for neurological disease. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2003;5(1):67-73.

Furlano RI, et al. Autism and the immune system. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997 Mar;38(3):337-49.

Geier DA, Mumper E, Gladfelter B, Coleman L, Geier MR. Neurodevelopmental disorders, maternal Rh-negativity, and Rho(D) immune globulins: a multi-center assessment. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2008 Apr;29(2):272-80.

Goines P, Van de Water J. The immune system’s role in the biology of autism. Curr Opin Neurol. 2010 Apr;23(2):111-7.

Goines P, et al. Autoantibodies to cerebellum in children with autism associate with behavior. Brain Behav Immun. 2011 Mar;25(3):514-23.

Gupta S. Immunological treatments for autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2000 Oct;30(5):475-9.

Gupta S, Aggarwal S, Heads C. Dysregulated immune system in children with autism: beneficial effects of intravenous immune globulin on autistic characteristics. J Autism Dev Disord. 1996 Aug;26(4):439-52.

Gupta S, Samra D, Agrawal S. Adaptive and Innate Immune Responses in Autism: Rationale for Therapeutic Use of Intravenous Immuno-globulin. J Clin Immunol. 2010 Apr 15.

Singh VK. Phenotypic expression of autoimmune autistic disorder (AAD): a major subset of autism. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2009 Jul-Sep;21(3):148-61.

Gupta S, et al. Th1- and Th2-like cytokines in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in autism. J Neuroimmunol. 1998 May 1;85(1):106-9.

Hertz-Picciotto I, Park HY, Dostal M, Kocan A, Trnovec T, Sram R. Prenatal exposures to persistent and non-persistent organic compounds and effects on immune system development. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2008 Feb;102(2):146-54.

Heuer L, Ashwood P, Schauer J, Goines P, Krakowiak P, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hansen R, Croen LA, Pessah IN, Van de Water J. Reduced levels of immunoglobulin in children with autism correlates with behavioral symptoms. Autism Res. 2008 Oct;1(5):275.

Jyonouchi H, et al. Evaluation of an association between gastrointestinal symptoms and cytokine production against common dietary proteins in children with autism spectrum disorders. J Pediatr. 2005 May;146(5): 605-10.

Jyonouchi H. Food allergy and autism spectrum disorders: is there a link? Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2009 May;9(3):194-201.

Jyonouchi H, Geng L, Cushing-Ruby A, Quraishi H. Impact of innate immunity in a subset of children with autism spectrum disorders: a case control study. J Neuroinflammation. 2008 Nov 21;5(1):52.

Jyonouchi H, Geng L, Streck DL, Toruner GA. Immunological characterization and transcription profiling of peripheral blood (PB) monocytes in children with autismspectrum disorders (ASD) and specific polysaccharide antibody deficiency (SPAD): case study. J Neuroinflammation. 2012 Jan 7;9:4.

Jyonouchi H, Geng L, Streck DL, Toruner GA. Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who exhibit chronic gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and marked fluctuation of behavioral symptoms exhibit distinct innate immune abnormalities and transcriptional profiles of peripheral blood (PB) monocytes. J Neuroimmunol. 2011 Jul 29.

Jyonouchi H, Sun S, Le H. Proinflammatory and regulatory cytokine production associated with innate and adaptive immune re-sponses in children with autism spectrum disorders and developmental regression. J Neuroimmunol. 2001 Nov 1;120(1-2):170-9.

Jyonouchi H, Sun S, Itokazu N. Innate immunity associated with inflammatory responses and cytokine production against common dietary proteins in patients with autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychobiology. 2002;46(2):76-84.

Jyonouchi H, Geng L, Ruby A, Zimmerman-Bier B. Dysregulated innate immune responses in young children with autism spectrum disorders: their relationship to gastrointestinal symptoms and dietary intervention. Neuropsychobiology. 2005;51(2):77-85.

Kelly A, Khan K. Prevalence of allergies in children with complex medical problems. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2008 Oct;47(8):809-16.

Kidd PM. Autism, an extreme challenge to integrative medicine. Part 2: medical management. Altern Med Rev. 2002 Dec;7(6):472-.

Kirjavainen PV, et al. New aspects of probiotics–a novel approach in the management of food allergy. Allergy. 1999 Sep;54(9):909.

Knickmeyer R, Baron-Cohen S, Raggatt P, Taylor K. Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005 Feb;46(2):198-210.

Konstantareas MM, Homatidis S. Ear infections in autistic and normal children. J Autism Dev Disord. 1987 Dec;17(4):585-94.

Koski CL, Patterson JV. Intravenous immunoglobulin use for neurologic diseases. J Infus Nurs. 2006 May-Jun;29(3 Suppl):S21-8.

Li X, et al. Elevated immune response in the brain of autistic patients. J Neuroimmunol. 2009 Jan 19.

Lipkin WI, Hornig M. Microbiology and immunology of autism spectrum disorders. Novartis Found Symp. 2003;251:129-43; discussion 144-8, 281-97.

Lucarelli S et al. Food allergy and infantile autism. Panminerva Med. 1995 Sep;37(3):137-41.

Magalhães ES, et al. Immune allergic response in Asperger syndrome. J Neuroimmunol. 2009 Nov 30;216(1-2):108-12.

March JS. Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated With Streptococcal Infection (PANDAS): implications for clinical practice. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2004, 158(9): 927-9.

Martin LA, Ashwood P, Braunschweig D, Cabanlit M, Van de Water J, Amaral DG. Stereotypies and hyperactivity in rhesus monkeys exposed to IgG from mothers of children with autism. Brain Behav Immun. 2008 Feb 7.

McDonald KL, Huq SI, Lix LM, Becker AB, Kozyrskyj AL. Delay in diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus vaccination is associated with a reduced risk of childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008

Meffert M, Baltimore D. Physiological Functions of brain NF-KB. Trends in Neurosciences. 2005;28(1):37-43.

Meyer U, Nyffeler M, Engler A, Urwyler A, Schedlowski M, Knuesel I, Yee BK, Feldon J. The time of prenatal immune challenge determines the specificity of inflammation-mediated brain and behavioral pathology. J Neurosci. 2006 May 3;26(18):4752-62.

Molloy C, et al. Elevated cytokine levels in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Neuroimmunology. 2006;172:198-205.

Mostafa GA, El-Sayed ZA, El-Aziz MM, El-Sayed MF. Serum anti-myelin-associated glycoprotein antibodies in Egyptian autistic children. J Child Neurol. 2008 Dec;23(12):1413-8.

Mouridsen SE, Rich B, Isager T, Nedergaard NJ. Autoimmune diseases in parents of children with infantile autism: a case-control study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008 Jun;49(6):429-32.

Niehus R, Lord C. Early medical history of children with autism spectrum disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2006 Apr;27(2 Suppl):S120-7.

Okada K, et al. Decreased serum levels of transforming growth factor-beta1 in patients with autism. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Oct 5.

Pardo CA, et al. Immunity, neuroglia and neuroinflammation in autism. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2005 Dec;17(6):485-95.
Patterson PH. Immune involvement in schizophrenia and autism: Etiology, pathology and animal models.Behav Brain Res.2008 Dec.

Pessah IN, et al. Immunologic and neurodevelopmental susceptibilities of autism. Neurotoxicology. 2008.

Plioplys AV. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of children with autism. J Child Neurol. 1998 Feb;13(2):79-82.

Rampersad GC, et al. Chemical compounds that target thiol-disulfide groups on mononuclear phagocytes inhibit immune mediated phagocytosis of red blood cells. Transfusion 2005, 45(3): 384-93.

Reichenberg A, et al. Cytokine-associated emotional and cognitive disturbances in humans. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001, 58(5): 445.

Schneider CK, Melmed RD, Barstow LE, Enriquez FJ, Ranger-Moore J, Ostrem JA. Oral Human Immunoglobulin for Children with Autism and Gastrointestinal Dysfunction: A Prospective, Open-Label Study. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006 Jul 15.

Scifo R, et al. Opioid-immune interactions in autism: behavioural and immunological assessment during a double-blind treatment with naltrexone. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 1996;32(3):351-9.

Shumway S, Thurm A, Swedo SE, Deprey L, Barnett LA, Amaral DG, Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S. Brief report: symptom onset patterns and functional outcomes in young children with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011 Dec;41(12):1727-32.

Silva SC, et al. Autoantibody repertoires to brain tissue in autism nuclear families. J Neuroimmunol. 2004 Jul;152(1-2):176-82.

Singer HS, et al. Antibrain antibodies in children with autism and their unaffected siblings. J Neuroimmunol. 2006 Sep;178(1-2):149.

Singer HS, et al. Antibodies against fetal brain in sera of mothers with autistic children. J Neuroimmunol. 2008 Feb;194(1-2):165-72.

Singh VK, et al. Circulating autoantibodies to neuronal and glial filament proteins in autism. Pediatr Neurol. 1997 Jul;17(1):88-90.

Singh VK, et al. Antibodies to myelin basic protein in children with autistic behavior. Brain Behav Immun. 1993 Mar;7(1):97-103.

Singh VK, Singh EA, Warren RP. Hyperserotoninemia and serotonin receptor antibodies in children with autism but not mental retardation. Biol Psychiatry. 1997 Mar 15;41(6):753-5.

Singh VK, et al. Prevalence of serum antibodies to caudate nucleus in autistic children. Neurosci Lett. 2004 Jan 23;355(1-2):53-6.

Siragam V, Crow AR, Brinc D, Song S, Freedman J, Lazarus AH. Intravenous immunoglobulin ameliorates ITP via activating Fc gamma receptors on dendritic cells. Nat Med. 2006 Jun;12(6):688-92.

Stubbs EG, et al. Depressed lymphocyte responsiveness in autistic children. J Autism Child Schizophr. 1977 Mar;7(1):49-55.

Stubbs EG, Budden SS, Burger DR, Vandenbark AA. Transfer factor immunotherapy of an autistic child with congenital cytomegalovirus. J Autism Dev Disord. 1980 Dec;10(4):451-8.

Suh JH, Walsh WJ, McGinnis WR, Lewis A, Ames BN. Altered Sulfur Amino Acid Metabolism In Immune Cells of Children Diagnosed With Autism. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 4(2): 105-113, 2008.

Swedo SE, et al. Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections: clinical description of the first 50 cases. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Feb;155(2):264-71.

Swedo SE, Leonard HL, Rapoport JL. The pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) subgroup: separating fact from fiction. Pediatrics. 2004 Apr;113(4):907-11.

Swedo SE, Grant PJ. Annotation: PANDAS: a model for human autoimmune disease. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;46(3):227-34.

Sweeten TL, et al. Increased prevalence of familial autoimmunity in probands with pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatrics. 2003.

Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, McDougle CJ. High blood monocyte counts and neopterin levels in children with autistic disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2003 Sep;160(9):1691-3.

Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, Shankar S, McDougle CJ. High nitric oxide production in autistic disorder: a possible role for interferon-gamma. Bio Psychiatry. 2004 Feb 15:55(4):434-7.

Trajkovski V, Ajdinski L, Spiroski M. Plasma concentration of immunoglobulin classes and subclasses in children with autism in the Republic of Macedonia: retrospective study. Croat Med J. 2004 Dec;45(6):746-9.

Vojdani A, et al. Low natural killer cell cytotoxic activity in autism: The role of glutathione, IL-2 and IL-15. J Neuroimmunol. 2008 Dec 15;205(1-2):148-54.

Vojdani A, et al. Antibodies to neuron-specific antigens in children with autism: possible cross-reaction with encephalitogenic proteins from milk, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Streptococcus group A. J Neuroimmunol. 2002 Aug;129(1-2):168-77.

Vojdani A, et al. Infections, toxic chemicals and dietary peptides binding to lymphocyte receptors and tissue enzymes are major instigators of autoimmunity in autism. International J Immunopathol Pharmacology 16: 189-199, 2003.

Vojdani A, O’Bryan T, Green JA, Mccandless J, Woeller KN, Vojdani E, Nourian AA, Cooper EL. Immune response to dietary proteins, gliadin and cerebellar peptides in children with autism. Nutr Neurosci. 2004 Jun;7(3):151-61.

Vojdani A, et al.
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Wakefield AJ, Walker-Smith JA, Murch SH. Colonic CD8 and gamma delta T-cell infiltration with epithelial damage in children with autism. Pediatrics 2001;138:366-72.

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Warren RP, et al. Detection of maternal antibodies in infantile autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1990 Nov;29(6):873-7.

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Warren RP, et al. Immunogenetic studies in autism and related disorders. Mol Chem Neuropathol. 1996 May-Aug;28(1-3):77-81.

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Zimecki M, Artym J. Therapeutic properties of proteins and peptides from colostrum and milk. Postepy Hig Med Dosw. 2005;59:309-23.

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METABOLISM

Chugani DC, Sundram BS, Behen M, Lee ML, Moore GJ. Evidence of altered energy metabolism in autistic children. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1999 May;23(4):635-41.

Ehrhart J, Zeevalk GD. Cooperative interaction between ascorbate and glutathione during mitochondrial impairment in mesencephalic cultures. J Neurochem 2003 86(6):1487-97.

Fernandez-Checa JC et al. Oxidative stress: role of mitochondria and protection by glutathione. Biofactors. 1998;8(1-2):7-11.

Filipek PA, Juranek J, et al. Relative carnitine deficiency in autism. J Autism Dev Disord 34(6): 615-23, 2004.

Filipek PA, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in autistic patients with 15q inverted duplication. Ann Neurol 53(6): 801-4, 2003.

Metabolism | Autism Research Articles
Fillano JJ, Goldenthal MJ, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in patients with hypotonia, epilepsy, autism, and developmental delay: HEADD syndrome. J Child Neurol 17(6): 435-9., 2002.

Frye RE, Rossignol DA. Mitochondrial dysfunction can connect the diverse medical symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatr Res. 2011 Feb 1.

Gargus JJ, Imtiaz F. Mitochondrial energy-deficient endophenotype in autism. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 4(2): 198-207, 2008.

Giulivi C, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in autism. JAMA. 2010 Dec 1;304(21):2389-96.

Holtzman D. Autistic spectrum disorders and mitochondrial encephalopathies. Acta Paediatr. 2008 Jul;97(7):859-60.

Kidd PM. Neurodegeneration from mitochondrial insufficiency: nutrients, stem cells, growth factors, and prospects for brain rebuilding using integrative management. Altern Med Rev. 2005 Dec;10(4):268-93.

Melnyk S, Fuchs GJ, Schulz E, Lopez M, et al. Metabolic imbalance associated with methylation dysregulation and oxidative damage in children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012 Mar;42(3):367-77.

Oliveira G, Ataide A, et al. Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorder in Portugal: prevalence, clinical characterization, and medical conditions. Dev Med Child Neurol 49(10): 726-33, 2007.

Oliveira G, Diogo L, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: a population-based study. Dev Med Child Neurol 47(3): 185-9, 2005.

Palmieri L, et al. Altered calcium homeostasis in autism-spectrum disorders: evidence from biochemical and genetic studies of the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier AGC1. Mol Psychiatry. 2010 Jan;15(1):38-52.

Palmieri L, Persico AM. Mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders: Cause or effect? Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010 May.

Poling JS, et al. Developmental regression and mitochondrial dysfunction in a child with autism. J Child Neurol 21(2): 170-2, 2006.

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NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM

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Herbert MR. Large brains in autism: the challenge of pervasive abnormality. Neuroscientist 2005. 11(5): 417-40.

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Toda Y, Mori K, Hashimoto T, Miyazaki M, Nozaki S, Watanabe Y, Kuroda Y, Kagami S. Administration of secretin for autism alters dopamine metabolism in the central nervous system. Brain Dev. 2006 Mar;28(2):99-103.

Vargas DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Ann Neurol. 2005 Jan;57(1)67-81.

Wang XF, Cynader MS. Astrocytes provide cysteine to neurons by releasing glutathione. J Neurochem. 2000 74(4):1434-42.

Welch MG, Ludwig RJ, Opler M, Ruggiero DA. Secretin’s role in the cerebellum: a larger biological context and implications for developmental disorders. Cerebellum. 2006;5(1):2-6.

Welch MG, Ruggiero DA. Predicted role of secretin and oxytocin in the treatment of behavioral and developmental disorders: implications for autism. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2005;71:273-315.

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NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES, SUPPLEMENTS & DIET

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Andersen IM, et al. Melatonin for Insomnia in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Child Neurol. 2008 Jan 8.

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Bolman WM, Richmond JA. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover pilot trial of low dose dimethylglycine in patients with autistic disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 1999 Jun;29(3):191-4.

Bruni O, et al. L -5-Hydroxytryptophan treatment of sleep terrors in children. Eur J Pediatr. 2004 Jul;163(7):402-7.

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OXIDATIVE STRESS

Aw TY. Intestinal glutathione: determinant of mucosal peroxide transport, metabolism, and oxidative susceptibility. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005 May 1;204(3):320-8.

Bell JG, MacKinlay EE, et al. Essential fatty acids and phospholipase A2 in autistic spectrum disorders. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2004: 71(4): 201-4.

Blaylock, R. Interactions of cytokines, excitotoxins, and reactive nitrogen and oxygen species in autism spectrum disorders. J Amer Nutr Assoc 2003: 6: 21-35.

Boso M, Emanuele E, et al. Alterations of circulating endogenous secretory RAGE and S100A9 levels indicating dysfunction of the AGE-RAGE axis in autism. Neurosci Lett 2006: 410(3): 169-73.

Chauhan A, Chauhan V. Oxidative stress in autism. Pathophysiology 2006: 13(3): 171-81.

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Chauhan A, Chauhan V, et al. Oxidative stress in autism: increased lipid peroxidation and reduced serum levels of ceruloplasmin and transferrin–the antioxidant proteins. Life Sci 2004: 75(21): 2539-49.

Chauhan A, Sheikh A, et al. Increased copper-mediated oxidation of membrane phosphatidylethanolamine in autism. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008:4(2): 95-100.

Chauhan V, Chauhan A, et al. Alteration in amino-glycerophospholipids levels in the plasma of children with autism: a potential biochemical diagnostic marker. Life Sci 2004: 74(13): 1635-43.

Danfors T, von Knorring AL, et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin in the treatment of children with autistic disorder: a double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2005: 25(5): 485-9.

Evans TA, Siedlak SL, et al. The autistic phenotype exhibits a remarkably localized modification of brain protein by products of free radical-induced lipid oxidation. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008: 4(2): 61-72.

James SJ, et al. Metabolic endophenotype and related genotypes are associated with oxidative stress in children with autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2006 Aug 17.

James SJ, Slikker W 3rd, Melnyk S, New E, Pogribna M, Jernigan S. Thimerosal neurotoxicity is associated with glutathione depletion: protection with glutathione precursors. Neurotoxicology. 2005 Jan;26(1):1-8.

James SJ, et al. Efficacy of methylcobalamin and folinic acid treatment on glutathione redox status in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jan;89(1):425-30.

James SJ, Rose S, Melnyk S, Jernigan S, Blossom S, Pavliv O, Gaylor DW. Cellular and mitochondrial glutathione redox imbalance in lymphoblastoid cells derived from children with autism. FASEB J. 2009 Mar 23.

Jory J, McGinnis WR. Red-cell trace minerals in children with autism. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008: 4(2): 101-104.

Kazutoshi N, Naoko N, Emiko T, Man U, Miyuki T, Kaori S. A Preliminary Study of Methylcobalamin Therapy in Autism. J Tokyo Women’s Medical University. 2005; 75(3/4);64-69.

Krajcovicova-Kudlackova M, Valachovicova M, Mislanova C, Hudecova Z, Sustrova M, Ostatnikova D. Plasma concentrations of selected antioxidants in autistic children and adolescents. Bratisl Lek Listy. 2009;110(4):247-50.

MacFabe, DF, Rodríguez-Capote K, et al. A novel rodent model of autism: intraventricular infusions of propionic acid increase locomotor activity and induce neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in discrete regions of adult rat brain. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008: 4(2): 146.

Main PA, Angley MT, Thomas P, O’Doherty CE, Fenech M. Folate and methionine metabolism in autism: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Jun;91(6):1598-620.

McGinnis WR. Oxidative stress in autism. Altern Ther Health Med 2005: 11(1): 19.

McGinnis WR. Could oxidative stress from psychosocial stress affect neurodevelopment in autism? J Autism Dev Disord 2007: 37(5): 993-4.

McGinnis WR,et al. Discerning the Mauve factor, Part 1&2. Altern Ther Health Med. 2008 Mar-Apr&May-Jun;14(3):56-62.

Miller DM, Woods JS. Urinary porphyrins as biological indicators of oxidative stress in the kidney. Interaction of mercury and cephaloridine. Biochem Pharmacol 1993: 46(12): 2235-41.

Ming X, Stein TP, Brimacombe M, Johnson WG, Lambert GH, Wagner GC. Increased excretion of a lipid peroxidation biomarker in autism. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2005 Nov;73(5):379-84.

Ming X, et al. Evidence of Oxidative Stress in Autism Derived from Animal Models. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 4(2): 218-225, 2008.

Mostafa GA, et al. Oxidative stress in Egyptian children with autism: relation to autoimmunity. J Neuroimmunol. 2010 Feb 26;219(1-2):114-8.

Ng F, Berk M, et al. Oxidative stress in psychiatric disorders: evidence base and therapeutic implications. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008.

Pasca SP, Nemes B, et al. High levels of homocysteine and low serum paraoxonase 1 arylesterase activity in children with autism. Life Sci 2006: 78(19): 2244-8.

Ross M. A. Could oxidative stress be a factor in neurodevelopmental disorders? Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2000: 63(1-2): 61-3.

Rossignol DA, Rossignol LW. The effects of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on oxidative stress, inflammation, and symptoms in children with autism: an open-label pilot study. BMC Pediatr 2007: 7(1): 36.

Sajdel-Sulkowska EM, Lipinski B, et al. Oxidative stress in autism: elevated cerebellar 3-nitrotyrosine levels. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008: 4(2): 73-84.

Sajdel-Sulkowska EM, Xu M, McGinnis W, Koibuchi N. Brain Region-Specific Changes in Oxidative Stress and Neurotrophin Levels in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Cerebellum. 2010 Oct 22.

Sajdel-Sulkowska EM, et a. Increase in Cerebellar Neurotrophin-3 and Oxidative Stress Markers in Autism. Cerebellum. 2009 Apr 9.

Sokol DK, Chen D, et al. High levels of Alzheimer beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) in children with severely autistic behavior and aggression. J Child Neurol 2006: 21(6): 444-9.

Suh JH, Walsh WJ, et al. Altered sulfur amino acid metabolism in immune cells of children diagnosed with autism. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 2008: 4(2): 105-113.

Tchantchou F, Graves M, Shea TB. Expression and activity of methionine cycle genes are altered following folate and vitamin E deficiency under oxidative challenge: modulation by apolipoprotein E-deficiency. Nutr Neurosci. 2006 Feb-Apr;9(1-2):17-24.

Torsdottir G, Hreidarsson S, et al. Ceruloplasmin, superoxide dismutase and copper in autistic patients. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2005: 96(2): 146-8.

Yao Y, Walsh WJ, et al. Altered vascular phenotype in autism: correlation with oxidative stress. Arch Neurol 2006: 63(8): 1161-4.

Yorbik O, Sayal A, Akay C, Akbiyik DI, Sohmen T. Investigation of antioxidant enzymes in children with autistic disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2002 Nov;67(5):341-3.

Zoroglu SS, Armutcu F, et al. Increased oxidative stress and altered activities of erythrocyte free radical scavenging enzymes in autism. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004: 254(3): 143-7.

PREVALENCE

ADDM; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders – Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, United States, 2006. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2009 Dec 18;58(10):1-20.

Baird G, et al. Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP). Lancet. 2006 Jul 15; 368(9531):210-5.

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